Unit-introduction to Beef Production Lesson 7: Industry Issues Evaluation
Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2018 Jul; 31(7): 992–1006.
Current situation and future prospects for the Australian beef manufacture — A review
Paul 50 Greenwood
1New S Wales Department of Primary Industries, Armidale Livestock Industries Center, University of New England, Armidale NSW 2351, Australia
2CSIRO Agronomics and Food, FD McMaster Laboratory Chiswick, Armidale NSW 2350, Australia
Graham Due east Gardner
3Murdoch Academy, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch WA 6150, Commonwealth of australia
Drewe Chiliad Ferguson
2CSIRO Agriculture and Food, FD McMaster Laboratory Chiswick, Armidale NSW 2350, Commonwealth of australia
Received 2018 Jan 22; Revised 2018 February 25; Accustomed 2018 Apr two.
Abstract
Beef product extends over almost half of Australia, with about 47,000 cattle producers that contribute nigh twenty% ($A12.7 billion gross value of production) of the total value of farm production in Australia. Australia is one of the world's nigh efficient producers of cattle and was the world'south tertiary largest beefiness exporter in 2016. The Australian beef manufacture had 25 million head of cattle in 2016–17, with a national beefiness breeding herd of 11.5 1000000 caput. Australian beef product includes pasture-based moo-cow-calf systems, a backgrounding or grow-out period on pasture, and feedlot or pasture finishing. Feedlot finishing has assumed more than importance in recent years to assure the eating quality of beef entering the relatively small Australian domestic marketplace, and to heighten the supply of college value beef for export markets. Maintenance of Australia's preferred status as a quality bodacious supplier of high value beef produced nether environmentally sustainable systems from 'illness-free' cattle is of highest importance. Stringent livestock and meat quality regulations and quality assurance systems, and productivity growth and efficiency across the supply chain to ensure toll competiveness, are crucial for connected export market place growth in the face of increasing competition. Major industry issues, that also represent research, evolution and adoption priorities and opportunities for the Australian beef industry take been captured within exhaustive strategic planning processes by the red meat and beef industries. At the broadest level, these problems include consumer and industry support, market place growth and diversification, supply chain efficiency, productivity and profitability, environmental sustainability, and animal health and welfare. This review provides an overview of the Australian beef industry including current market trends and futurity prospects, and major issues and opportunities for the continued growth, development and profitability of the industry.
Keywords: Beefiness Markets, Beef Product, Beefiness Value Concatenation, Quality Assurance, Inquiry and Development
INTRODUCTION
The Australian beef industry is a major contributor to the Australian economic system. The gross value of cattle and beef product including alive cattle exports was $A12.7 billion with an off-farm value of $A16.9 billion in 2016–17 [1]. Beef production represents well-nigh xx% of the total value of agricultural production in Australia.
The Australian beef industry had 25 1000000 caput of cattle, with a national beef convenance herd of 11.5 million head in 2016–17 [i]. Australian beef production includes pasture based cow-calf systems, a backgrounding or grow-out period on pasture, and feedlot or pasture finishing. The national herd covers a wide range of agro-climatic zones from northern tropical to southern Mediterranean or cool temperate systems, and comprises an equally broad range of tropically-adapted and temperate genotypes and their crosses inside these systems. A national genetic improvement program, BREEDPLAN has existed since the mid-1980's and includes over 30 breeds, and a range of production, efficiency, carcass and beefiness quality traits used in Australia [ii] and internationally [3].
The Australian domestic household market for beefiness de mands a relatively lean product finished using pasture or short-feedlotting. College value product is supplied into the domestic hospitality trade. Supply of Australian beefiness to export markets has increasingly been for college-value product with emphasis on marbled beef to northern Asia following long-feedlotting, and more recently into emerging Asian markets including Cathay and Indonesia, but besides includes large volumes into the more traditional U.S. marketplace [4].
Maintenance of Australia'due south preferred status as a quality assured supplier of high value beef produced under environmentally sustainable systems from 'affliction-gratis' cattle is of high importance and is crucial for continued export market growth [v]. Notwithstanding, improvements in wellness status of cattle and traceability of beef past Southward American beef exporting nations, coupled with their lower production costs, have been reducing the gap between these countries and Australia equally a preferred beef supplier [6]. Continued efforts to maintain advantages in provenance, coupled with productivity growth beyond the supply chain to ensure price competiveness, volition be of import for continued export market growth for Australian beef in the face of increasing competition.
This review provides an overview of the Australian beef industry, current marketplace trends and future prospects, megatrends that are likely to impact on the beef manufacture, and major issues and opportunities for the continued growth, development and profitability of the industry.
AUSTRALIAN Beefiness Manufacture OVERVIEW
Beefiness production and distribution of the beef industry beyond Australia
A brief history and overview of the of the Australian beef industry is provided by [5,7]. Australia had well-nigh 25 meg head of cattle, including 2.eight million head of dairy cattle, and 11.5 1000000 beef cows and heifers in 2016–17 [one]. Australia has approximately 3% of the world cattle and buffalo inventory and with production of two.07 one thousand thousand tonnes (carcass weight) in 2016–17, Commonwealth of australia produces simply over 2% of the globe beef supply (Figure one). The Australian beefiness manufacture is largely pasture- and rangeland-based. Australia is one of the world's nigh efficient producers of cattle and was the world'south third largest exporter of beef in 2016 (Figure i).
The world's largest beefiness producing and exporting countries in 2016 [1].
Beefiness product extends over almost half of Australia, with about 47,000 cattle producers or 55% of businesses inside agricultural production [1]. Of these, over x,000 are in northern Commonwealth of australia where beefiness cattle businesses are generally larger compared to those in southern Commonwealth of australia. The Australian red meat industry employs nigh 200,000 people across the value chain.
Beef product in Commonwealth of australia is spread over all agro-climatic zones, from tropical savanna and forest in the north to cool-temperate Mediterranean and alpine in the South (Effigy ii). Approximately threescore% of Australia's cattle are in the northern areas of Australia (Effigy iii), and the amount and value of beef produced is split nigh evenly between the north and the south of Australia, due to higher yields and also college value markets traditionally supplied by temperate beef product systems. Feedlot finishing has assumed more than importance in recent years to assure the eating quality of beef entering the domestic market and to enhance the supply of marbled beefiness for loftier value export markets including Japan and Korea.
Climate classification in Australia [8].
Distribution of Commonwealth of australia's 25 one thousand thousand cattle as at June 2016 [1].
Construction of the Australian beef industry
Supply bondage
An overview of supply (value) bondage for Australian beefiness is shown in Figure iv [ix]. Beef processors supply Australian domestic retail markets directly or via a wholesaler or broker, and supply export markets through importers in the destination state. The domestic retail market place includes the food service industry, independent butcher shops and major supermarket chains. Slaughter cattle are sold to abattoirs predominantly by direct consignment just can also be procured via auction yards and electronic auction. Cattle destined for slaughter or live export are backgrounded after weaning and are then either finished in feedlots or on pasture. Cattle exported live for slaughter are generally backgrounded and may be fattened at pasture or in feedlot prior to export. Commercial cow-calf herds supply cattle for backgrounding, and obtain improved genetics from stud breeding herds.
Schematic of Australian beef supply chains [9].
Biosecurity and quality assurance
Australia lacks many exotic diseases present in other countries that are a risk to human health, cause major production losses and/or preclude international market access. Australia is gratuitous of foot and mouth disease (FMD), has had no recorded cases of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and the successful implementation of the Brucellosis and Tuberculosis Eradication Campaign (BTEC) that commenced in 1970s resulted in Australia existence brucellosis free by 1989 and declared free of tuberculosis in 1997 [10–12].
Australia has stringent, coordinated, nation-broad fauna health prevention and command measures that include the national Emergency Animal Disease Response Understanding and the Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan, the management of which lies with Animal Health Commonwealth of australia (AHA) [10].
A National Livestock Identification Organization (NLIS) for cattle was introduced in 1999 to enhance Commonwealth of australia's ability to trace cattle during disease and nutrient incidents [13]. The NLIS reflects Commonwealth of australia's commitment to biosecurity and food safety and provides a competitive reward in the global market. The NLIS requires all Australian cattle to have an electronic identification ear tag from an early historic period and underpins the 'disease costless', 'clean and light-green' prototype of the Australian beef industry. The NLIS also provides a mechanism for other market-specification related information on individual cattle and their products to be translated across the supply chain and, ultimately, back to beef producers.
The Consign Meat Program provides inspection, verifica tion and certification services to the consign meat industry in Australia [14]. The Meat Establishment Verification System provides a national approach to Federal Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (DAWR) inspection and verification of export registered abattoirs to back up Australian Government health certification for consign meat and meat products. The DAWR as well regulates the alive export manufacture [14]. Livestock exporters must meet high animal welfare standards through regulations such equally those that underpin the Exporter Supply Chain Balls Arrangement.
AUS-MEAT is responsible nether Australian authorities regulations for the direction of industry standards for trade description through the Australian Meat Industry Classification System (AUS-MEAT Language) and the AUS-MEAT National Accreditation Standards for AUS-MEAT Accredited Enterprises operating nether internationally recognized ISO9001 Quality Management Systems [fifteen]. The AUS-MEAT company is wholly endemic by its fellow member bodies, Meat & Livestock Australia (MLA) and Australian Meat Processors Corporation.
Australian beefiness brands tin choose to underpin the eating quality of their products by using Meat Standards Australia (MSA) standards and grading specifications [16,17]. These brands may besides include additional specifications that can be practical at grading. The MSA symbol, established in Australia, is at present used globally. MSA graded beefiness has met strict criteria developed using eating quality science supported by consumer taste panels. A comparison of international beef grading systems which demonstrates the range of inputs into the MSA beef grading system relative to other international systems is presented in Table 1.
Tabular array i
Comparison of international beef eating quality grading systems [xvi]
| Grading inputs | MSA Meat Standards Australia | USDA The states Department of Agronomics | EUROP European Beef Grading Scheme | JMGA Japan Meat Grading Clan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tropical breed content | ∨ | |||
| Hormonal growth promotant | ∨ | |||
| Sex | ∨ | |||
| Carcass weight | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ |
| Carcass conformation | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Ossification (maturity) | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Meat texture | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Meat firmness | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Milk-fed veal | ∨ | |||
| Carcass hanging method | ∨ | |||
| Marbling | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ | |
| Meat color | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ | |
| pH | ∨ | |||
| Rib fat measurement | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ | ∨ |
| Ribeye area | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Fatty color | ∨ | ∨ | ||
| Via saleyard | ∨ | |||
| Cut ageing | ∨ | |||
| Cooking method | ∨ | |||
| Individual cutting | ∨ |
Product systems
Australian beef production includes pasture- and rangeland-based moo-cow-calf systems, a backgrounding or grow-out period on pasture, and feedlot or pasture/forage finishing [7,18]. Southern Australian systems are generally more than wintertime rainfall-dominant, and include New Southward Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Commonwealth of australia, and more southern parts of Western Australia. Northern Australian production systems are generally more than all-encompassing on larger properties particularly in more inland, rangeland-based product systems. Northern systems include Queensland, northern Western Australia and the Northern Territory. They are more summer rainfall-ascendant with increasingly distinct wet and dry seasons further north that can result in h2o inundation and astringent feed restrictions, respectively. In general, soils in Australia are of poor structure, prone to erosion and have low fertility, especially in phosphorus and nitrogen which limits pasture product and livestock functioning if not redressed.
Southern Australian beefiness enters export and domestic mar kets in roughly equal volumes. Northern production systems mainly supply cattle and beef consign markets [7,18]. Inside the northern beef industry, Western Australia and the more northern parts of the Northern Territory and Queensland mainly supply live cattle for consign, and more southern parts of Queensland and the Northern Territory mainly produce cattle for slaughter within Commonwealth of australia prior to consign of the beef [vii,18,nineteen].
Product systems in southern Australia employ native and more productive improved temperate pastures and forages and, increasingly, tropical pasture species in regions with more rainfall in the warmer months, such as northern New S Wales [7,xviii]. These systems may be set up-stocked or use rotational-type grazing, and irrigation is limited within beef production systems. More than marginal beef producing land is utilized more for convenance herds, and better quality pasture is mostly provided to growing and/or finishing cattle. Cows are generally bred for a divers menstruation (typically half-dozen to 12 weeks) to calve in autumn (more southern regions of southern Australia) or spring (more northern regions of southern Australia) depending on the seasonal rainfall and feed availability patterns. British breeds, about notably Angus and Hereford, have been predominant in southern Australia. Large-framed European breeds such as Charolais that are typically used equally final-sires were introduced in the 1960s [5] for their high yielding qualities, and produce leaner beef for the European Matrimony and the domestic marketplace. The growth of higher-value markets that require marbled beef such as in Northward Asia has resulted in increased genetic option pressure level for marbling in British breeds, and increasing numbers of Wagyu and Wagyu-cantankerous cattle. Cattle are typically weaned at 200 to 300 kg (4 to nine months of age) and backgrounded on pasture. M weaning, which is a low-stress, instruction procedure practical during weaning that adapts cattle to treatment, facilities and management procedures, may exist adept to help cattle meliorate adapt to subsequently feedlotting. Cattle destined for high-marbling, higher value export markets are feedlot finished. Cattle destined for the domestic market are pasture or short-feedlot (typically seventy days) finished to assure eating quality. Tropically-adjusted cattle and their crosses are also increasing in numbers in the more northern regions of southern Australia due to their rut tolerance and yield characteristics. Dairy cattle also represent a significant part meat of the Australian beef manufacture, with approximately 2.eight million head of dairy cattle in Australia [1]. Dairy or dairy-cross (e.chiliad. Friesian×Wagyu) cattle for slaughter are an important component of the beefiness and veal industry in southern Australia.
Northern Australian production systems are generally char acterized by lower stocking rates on larger backdrop than in southern Australia due to geological (soil) and climatic limitations to production [7,xviii,19]. They include savanna- and rangeland-based production systems and vast properties owned past large, more integrated corporate organizations. Improved on-farm infrastructure including cattle handling facilities, improved mustering techniques including utilise of helicopters, and improved production efficiency in Northern Australia were enhanced past the successful implementation of the BTEC that commenced in 1970 [nineteen]. The BTEC, which required mustering and testing of cattle and complete destocking of infected backdrop resulted in Australia being brucellosis gratuitous by 1989 and declared free of tuberculosis in 1997. These developments in the northern Australian beef industry besides facilitated a more a rapid shift to tropically-adapted Bos indicus genotypes, as destocked infected properties previously had a higher proportion of Bos taurus cattle.
Apart from very early on imports of Zebu or part Zebu cattle from the Cape of Skillful Promise and Bengal in the tardily 18th and early 19th century, the start Bos indicus cattle arrived in 1933 just were not imported in significant numbers until the early 1950s [v,xix,xx]. Brahman, Santa Gertrudis and Droughtmaster are the major breeds in northern Commonwealth of australia. Advantages of Bos indicus cattle in northern Australia include tick resistance and heat tolerance. Productivity and production quality advantages can be accomplished by using Bos indicus×Bos taurus crosses, although may be limited to a minimum five/8 Bos indicus content to maintain acceptable tick resistance and estrus tolerance. Cow herds may be bred year-round or for defined periods, and are mustered at low frequency compared to southern Australia, once per year or more ofttimes if bred year-round. The highly seasonal rainfall pattern has generally extended the period from nascency to marketing for slaughter beyond the one to two years more typical in southern Australia. There are major economic benefits in reducing the number of dry seasons through which cattle destined for market are maintained. Options to attain this goal and to provide operational flexibility depending on prevailing seasonal weather condition include: sale of younger "store cattle" to specialized backgrounding or feedlot operations; the use of amend adapted, more than productive pasture and forage species with longer growing seasons; meliorate adapted, more productive cattle genotypes including Bos indicus cantankerous-breeds where suitable; early weaning to enable calves to maintain growth rates on forage and to allow cows to recover body condition and re-brood; utilise of hormonal growth promotants that provide substantial growth advantages but may touch on product quality (reduce MSA grade), and prohibits access to specific markets (e.chiliad. certain Australian domestic retail outlets and the European Marriage); and strategic nutritional supplementation specially of phosphorus and nitrogen to enable better utilization of available forage that may be of low quality [5,19]. Geographic isolation, lack of infrastructure including ship, h2o for stock and irrigation, internal fencing within properties, and slaughter facilities, plus availability and price of skilled labour are among electric current limitations to further development of the northern beef industry in Australia [v,19].
Supplementation of cattle with forage and concentrate feeds within Australian pastoral and rangeland systems is essential to maintain productivity equally pasture and forage availability and nutritional quality decline due to Australia'due south variable climate that includes highly seasonal rainfall patterns and severe droughts [eighteen,19,21]. Supplements may include for instance, grains, molasses and silage for energy, cottonseed, lupins, silage and, in northern Australia, leucaena for protein, and hay and silage for fibre. Diverse by-products are too fed to cattle, every bit are protein and mineral lick blocks that may include molasses, urea, a protein repast, salt and/or specific minerals such as calcium and phosphorus [7,xviii].
Feedlot finishing has causeless more than importance in contempo years to assure the eating quality of beefiness entering the domestic market and to enhance the supply of marbled beef for higher value export markets including Japan and Korea. Feedlot cattle undergo an induction program that includes vaccinations and are gradually adjusted to the feedlot diet. Feedlot diets vary co-ordinate to the length of fourth dimension cattle spend in the feedlot. Feedlot diets are specifically formulated to provide high energy to cattle and include grains such as wheat, barley and sorghum, sources of fibre such as hay or silage, a protein source such equally sunflower or lupins, and water, vitamins and minerals [22]. Leucaena may too exist used as a forage supplement in northern systems. A total of 2.seven one thousand thousand grain fed cattle were marketed in 2016–17 representing about 35% of all adult cattle slaughtered in Australia in 2016–17 [1].
Genetic comeback
The national program for genetic comeback of beef cattle in Commonwealth of australia is BREEDPLAN [2]. BREEDPLAN offers beefiness cattle breeders the potential to accelerate genetic progress in their herds and to provide objective data on stock they sell. The phenotypes collected every bit a part of BREEDPLAN include live weight and growth, carcass, fertility, nativity, efficiency, temperament and soundness traits (Tabular array 2). New Zealand, Namibia, Thailand and the Philippines also use BREEDPLAN as their national beef recording schemes, and BREEDPLAN is also used in various other countries including the Us, Canada, United Kingdom, South Africa, Republic of hungary and Argentina [3].
Table ii
Phenotypic traits with Estimated Breeding Values currently within BREEDPLAN, the Australian genetic evaluation system for beef cattle [2]
| Live weight | Fertility/calving | Carcass | Other |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nativity | Scrotal size | Carcass weight | Docility |
| Milk | Days to calving | Eye muscle area | Net feed intake |
| 200 day | Gestation length | Fat depth | Structural Soundness |
| 400 solar day | Calving ease | Retail beef yield | Flight fourth dimension |
| 600 24-hour interval | Intramuscular fat % | ||
| Mature cow | Shear force |
BREEDPLAN uses an advanced, modern genetic evaluation arrangement based on Best Linear Unbiased Prediction technology incorporating multi-trait analysis procedures to produce estimates of convenance values (EBVs or EPDs) [2,3]. Full-blooded and operation information of individuals, operation of known relatives and any progeny, known relationships between traits, and any genomic information on the fauna are used in determining EBVs. Amid a range of companion products in BREEDPLAN is BreedObject, which calculates selection indices to rank cattle based on their overall genetic merit for a specific breeding objective. BreedObject uses weightings of EBVs for individual traits, based on the contribution each trait makes to the profitability of an enterprise given the specifics of the production system and the target marketplace.
Stud herds that use BREEDPLAN aim to provide improved genetics for Australian commercial beef producing herds. In 2015, there were 135,689 registered beefiness cattle in Commonwealth of australia, including 32 breed societies with 100 or more than registered cattle [2]. Of these, 58.0% of cattle were British breed, 20.7% tropical breed, 14.vii% European brood and 6.6% other breed types. The ten breeds with highest representation were Angus (33.0% of registered beefiness cattle), Brahman (thirteen.iv%), Hereford (11.7%), Santa Gertrudis (7.5%), Droughtmaster (six.0%), Wagyu (4.three%), Charolais (4.1%), Limousin (3.three%), Shorthorn (three.1%), and Simmental (2.eight%). The number of registered cattle in Australia has been relatively stable over the by two decades.
Markets and market prospects for Australian beefiness and cattle
Historical and electric current market state of affairs
In 2016–17, Commonwealth of australia produced approximately 2.07 meg tonnes (carcass weight) of beef and veal for export and domestic consumption [1]. Australians consumed most 26 kg of beef per head and spent $A8.5 billion on beefiness in 2016–17. Beefiness had the highest value of retail sales per capita of any meat in Commonwealth of australia, and was third on a volume per capita ground behind chicken and seafood. However, Australia's relatively minor domestic population (24.5 million) and full domestic beef consumption relative to total beef product enables large quantities of beef to be exported [1,four].
The Australian beef export industry has been characterized by iv major eras ([23], Figure 5): British era prior to 1973; US era from 1973 to 1987 which saw major expansion of Australian beef exports, primarily for manufacturing beef; the Northward Asian era in which beef exports increased to include higher value production to Nihon and Korea from 1987 to 2009, underpinned by trade negotiations and liberalization in these countries; and the Developing Asia era since 2009, with rapid export growth to China and Indonesia in particular. Major events that have afflicted Australian beef exports within these periods are also shown in Figure 6. The resilience and growth of the of the Australian beefiness export industry is underpinned by the maintenance and/or growth and development of existing markets such as the US and in Due north Asia while diversifying into a wide range of consign markets globally.
Australian beef export values, Australian-United states substitution charge per unit and significant market developments [23].
Agricultural megatrends likely to impact on the Australian and global beefiness industries [24].
Australia has built a strong reputation globally as a supplier of assured, loftier quality beef and cattle due to its chapters to meet stringent market specifications, livestock wellness and food rubber requirements, as described in the section on Biosecurity and Quality Assurance above.
Commonwealth of australia was the earth'due south third largest beef exporter in 2016, afterward India and Brazil (Effigy 1). Australia exported 68% of its full beef and veal product in 2016–17, to a total of 77 countries [one,4]. The value of Australian beef and veal exports in 2016–17 was $A7.1 billion [1]. The major markets for Australian beef are Japan, (29% of Australian beef exports in 2016–17), The states (22%), Korea (17%), China (10%), Indonesia (five.3%), and Taiwan (3.2%).
Australia also exported 907,965 head of live cattle worth $A1.two billion in 2016–17 [1]. Indonesia (59% of Australian cattle exported in 2016–17), Vietnam (18%), Prc (viii.2%), Israel (4.eight%), Turkey (4.5%), and Malaysia (2.3%) were the major markets for Australian cattle.
Marketplace prospects
Longer-term market prospects for Australian beef appear to exist positive due to strong potential for continued export market growth, particularly into higher value and emerging Asian markets where consumer wealth and need for high quality protein are increasing. However, factors including consign competition from South American countries, United states of america and India for case, volition likely influence Australia's market penetration into certain emerging and existing Asian markets [4,vi]. Maintenance of Australia'southward preferred status as a quality assured supplier of loftier value beef produced under environmentally sustainable systems from 'affliction-free' cattle is of high importance and is crucial for continued growth of export markets. However, improvements in health status of cattle and traceability of beef past South American beef exporting nations, coupled with their lower production costs, accept been reducing the gap between these countries and Commonwealth of australia every bit a preferred beef supplier. Continued efforts to maintain advantages in provenance coupled with productivity growth across the supply chain to ensure price competiveness will be important for continued export market growth for Australian beefiness in the face up of increasing competition [6]. Indonesia's efforts towards self-sufficiency in beef production and alternative sources of beef may impact on future livestock exports from northern Australia [19].
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE AUSTRALIAN Beefiness INDUSTRY
Global megatrends
A number of so-called megatrends that volition influence agricultural industries including the Australian beef industry were identified by Hajkowicz and Eady [24] using a strategic foresight procedure. Megatrends are defined as a more important trajectory of change expressing itself over a decadal period, with far-reaching implications for the organization occurring at the intersection of multiple trends. The important agronomical megatrends identified by Hajkowicz and Eady [24] (Figure half dozen) were:
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A hungrier world: Population growth will drive global demand for nutrient and fibre;
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A wealthier world: A growing centre form will increase food consumption, diversify diets and consume more poly peptide;
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Choosy customers: Information empowered consumers of the future volition have expectations for wellness, provenance, sustainability and ideals;
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Transformative technologies: Advances in digital technology, genetic science and synthetics volition change the mode food and fibre products are fabricated and transported;
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A bumpier ride: Globalisation, climatic change and other impacts on the environment including human activities will reshape the risk profile for agriculture;
In the context of the beef sector there are some specific points to highlight. Firstly, information technology is unlikely that the future global food need volition be serviced by traditional animal and establish sources, fifty-fifty after significant gains in production efficiencies. Product of human food derived from non-animal/plant sources such every bit insects or manufactured synthetically will inevitably increase. For beef, the competition from other animal and non-animate being protein sources will remain a challenge merely the increasing affluence in developing countries (i.e. a "wealthier earth") will kickoff some competitive force per unit area.
Secondly, the beef industry responses to address these global trends must be actioned in an integrated way. Ruminants tin can uniquely use rangeland, not suitable for cropping, to produce food and fibre for humans, however, there is a clear imperative to increase production efficiency. This volition require an integrated arroyo that focuses on identifying and selecting animals that tin can maintain higher productivity from less resources and optimizing the management and production organization of these animals to ensure their genetic potential is realized. Harnessing the ability of genomic, nutritional and digital animal direction technologies will be paramount in order to accomplish step-change gains in production efficiency. Nonetheless, any gains in product efficiency must be achieved ethically and sustainably in society to satisfy more discerning markets and consumers (i.eastward. "choosy customers"). The office of ruminants in the production of greenhouse gases is well documented simply recent research has demonstrated there are multiple strategies that can simultaneously improve fauna productivity whilst reducing marsh gas emissions in cattle [25].
Quite recently, the Australian beef manufacture has taken on the aspirational goal to be carbon neutral past 2030 [26]. This will be quite challenging to achieve given that information technology will crave a simultaneous set on on mitigating carbon loss (through methane emissions) and increasing carbon capture in beef production systems. Yet, it will be central to the dual aim of demonstrating the sustainability of the sector and maximizing the trust and confidence in Australian beef products.
In this context, as a component in assessing quality of foods from livestock, an environmental index that takes into account carbon footprint, water and free energy utilize has too been proposed [27]. These authors identified priorities for livestock production including whole of life wheel analyses in the area of environmental mitigation, and selection for profitable animals nether unlike production systems as part of adaptation strategies. They likewise identified the need for a fundamental shift in the pattern of production systems to help ensure present and futurity needs for animate being products are met without compromising future generations [27].
Priorities and strategies to enhance the time to come for the Australian beef industry
Strategic planning
In response to factors affecting the future of the Australian beef manufacture including global megatrends, major bug that represent inquiry, evolution and adoption (RD&A) priorities and opportunities for the Australian beefiness industry have been captured within exhaustive strategic planning processes for the cherry-red meat [28] and beef [29] industries, including the southern [xxx] and northern [31] beef industries in Australia (Effigy 7). These priorities which are detailed in Figure eight guide funding by Australian Rural Development Corporations for RD&A activities undertaken by Australian Federal and Country Agencies, Universities and manufacture. The pillars and priorities within these plans include consumer and industry back up, product and systems integrity, market growth and diversification, supply chain efficiency, productivity, efficiency and profitability of beefiness production systems, health and welfare of cattle, and environmental stewardship. Challenges and opportunities for the Australian beef industry were also discussed by Bell et al [5] and Gleeson et al [19], and in relation to livestock nutrition, past Poppi and McLennan [21], with particular emphasis on Northern Commonwealth of australia where there is potential for substantial expansion of beef product.
National inquiry, development and adoption (RD&A) priorities to enhance long-term growth, viability and sustainability of the Australian beef manufacture [32]
In-field walk-over-weighing combined with on-brute and environmental sensors provide the opportunity to develop automated phenotyping in the commercial grazing surround, and decision support tools and apps to enhance productivity, efficiency and sustainability of beef product systems (Photograph: Dr Greg Bishop-Hurley, CSIRO, Australia).
Automation and data integration: Application of "transformative technologies" to enhance productivity and efficiency across the beef value chain
Nosotros are seeing the development of new, revolutionary chapters to make measurements and to empathise and better agronomical ecosystems and supply chains. This is based on the evolution of new sensing technologies including wireless sensor networks, and the associated capacity to capture, manage, analyse and develop applications from "big data". These developments will enable measurement and application of traits non previously possible or conceivable. They will enable the development of automated phenotyping, or livestock phenomics, which will underpin advances in genetic comeback through genomics and in precision pasture, livestock and supply concatenation direction. Existent-time, sensor platform technologies, east-management systems and predictive biological traits are being developed and incorporated into these labour saving, automated data collection and direction systems [33]. These systems will evolve to evaluate key efficiency constraints within commercial pasture-based systems including intake and feed efficiency at pasture, behaviour, disease susceptibility, wellness, reproduction and welfare status. Once linked with carcass information and market signals from further forth the supply chain, this volition allow the development of applications that better whole farm profitability, risk-management and compliance to market specifications. They volition besides enable interactions with the environment to be monitored and better understood.
The next generation of phenotyping of traits measured on individual animals, methodologies to larn them, and increased computational capacity required to analyse data is known as Phenomics. Animal phenomics has been defined as the conquering of high-dimensional phenotypic data on an fauna-wide scale [34]. We take extended this definition to include the real-time acquisition of high density behavioural and physiological input and response measures coupled with data describing the production environs [33].
Emerging livestock phenomics methodologies include: i) sensory-based approaches to develop traits diagnostic of productivity, efficiency and product quality, besides as animal resilience, health and welfare; and ii) automatic on-subcontract and across supply concatenation methods for information collection that drive management solutions to reduce input costs, accelerate genetic gain, to raise product and processing efficiency. There are numerous technological and belittling challenges associated with the use of these technologies to achieve the objective of establishing a livestock phenomics platform, equally reviewed by Greenwood et al [33].
The capacity to empathize factors that underpin produc tivity and efficiency in pastoral ecosystems is limited by our power to measure intake and efficiency of utilization of feed and environmental factors that contribute to variation in efficiency within commercial grazing environments. Initial traits being targeting in development of a livestock phenomics platform for efficiency at pasture are voluntary intake of pasture past private grazing animals and liveweight [33,35,36] (Effigy eight), and too include reproductive success for the breeding herd. Pasture intake is the fundamental input trait that underpins livestock production efficiency, and this plus automated methods for frequent reliable measurement of liveweight and liveweight change over time are being established [33,35,36]. A schematic for a more comprehensive livestock phenomics platform for efficiency at pasture is presented in Figure ix.
Schematic representation of efficiency at pasture phenotyping network for grazing livestock meat (and fibre) production [33]. Besides see Figures 8 and 10.
A key constraint to the precision of these systems is the use of liveweight as the sole indicator of growth performance. There tin can exist considerable variation in carcass lean meat betwixt animals of similar weight, leading to decelerated genetic gain for rapid growth of meat in the carcass. Although ultrasound tin exist used to determine back fat depth, unmarried point measures have been shown to be relatively imprecise and inaccurate for determining the lean composition of carcasses [37]. There are a number of technologies that bear witness hope for determining carcass limerick in live animals which would address this reduced precision. These include Dual Free energy Ten-ray absorptiometry [38], and three-dimensional imaging technologies being adult as part of the Advanced Livestock Measurement Technologies projection inside Australia.
Although in that location is a focus on developing generic approaches to livestock phenomics of grazing cattle, it is important to acknowledge that the number of variables that can exist measured renders it impossible to develop a single approach that will perform across all applications. However, information technology is possible to develop a streamlined workflow that can be used in most situations which provide guidance to facilitate successful outcomes in the generation of new traits. A workflow system being used for sensor based assessment of behaviours associated with evolution of algorithms to judge intake of pasture by individual grazing livestock is detailed by Greenwood et al [33]. Utilisation and delivery of automatic, remote data drove from multiple sources from livestock and the surroundings will also exist supported by the development of electronic interfaces such as "apps" and "dashboards" [33].
An additional opportunity to enhance industry profitability, efficiency and capacity to meet market specifications is the development of objective methods to allow market signals and product value to be translated downwards the supply chain to producers of beef. This requires the utilize of automated, objective measurement technologies to enhance the chapters of producers and processors to meet market place specifications more reliably, and to increment producer profitability. This is summarised for the beef value chain in Figure 10. Thus, linking measurements that accurately capture commercial cut weights every bit well equally their eating quality will enable more targeted delivery of beef products to markets. This will improve marketplace confidence, particularly where high quality products are demanded, underpinning higher prices and greater value generation. In plough, these measurements will enable cost signals to producers that more accurately reverberate the quality and quantity of beefiness sold, facilitating a more responsive product sector.
Objective measurement technologies and data links across the Australian beef value chain volition enable feedback from the marketplace and ameliorate management decisions to improve production and processing efficiencies and compliance with market specifications.
Conclusion
Market prospects for Australian beefiness remain strong due to existing domestic and export markets, and emerging export markets particularly in Asia. Profitability of the Australian beef manufacture will keep to depend on marketplace stability and growth, and on the capacity of beef producers to more efficiently meet market specifications. Maintenance and improvements in Australia's reputation as a preferred, reliable supplier of 'disease-free' production that meets market specifications remains essential for market place access, and improvements in objective measurement and cost signaling of beef quality, carcass, and production and efficiency traits to producers will raise their chapters to increase productivity and meliorate profitability. Long-term improvements in productivity, efficiency and sustainability of product systems volition underpin connected market growth and development of the Australian beef industry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions of Dr Ed Charmley (CSIRO) and Steve Exton (NSW Department of Primary Industries) who provided valuable feedback to improve this paper.
Footnotes
CONFLICT OF Interest
Nosotros certify that there is no disharmonize of involvement with any fiscal arrangement regarding the material discussed in the manuscript.
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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039327/
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